GEOGRAPHICAL ENQUIRY AND MAP MAKING : Detailed Notes & Exam Questions | Grade 12 Geography Unit 8

Welcome, dear student! In this unit, we will learn about Geographical Enquiry and Map Making. These are two of the most important skills a geography student can develop. Have you ever wondered how geographers find out about the world? How do they collect information, analyze it, and present it on a map? That is exactly what this unit is all about. Let us begin step by step.

8.1 Fundamentals of Research in Geography

8.1.1 What is Geographical Enquiry?

Geographical enquiry is the process of asking questions about the Earth and its features, and then systematically investigating those questions to find answers. Geographers ask questions like: What is it? Where is it? Why is it there? How does it affect people? These questions help us understand the world around us.

A geographical enquiry follows a structured approach, much like a scientific investigation. It is not just about collecting facts — it is about understanding the relationships between people, places, and environments.

Can you think of a geographical question about your own town or city? For example: “Why are more shops located near the main road than in the residential areas?” That is a geographical question!

8.1.2 Steps in Geographical Research

Geographical research follows several clear steps. Let us go through each one carefully.

Step 1: Identifying the Problem (Topic Selection)

The first step is to decide what you want to study. This is called identifying the research problem or selecting a topic. The topic should be clear, specific, and related to geography. For example, instead of saying “I want to study rivers,” a better topic would be: “The causes of flooding in the Awash River Basin.”

A good research problem should be:

• Clear: Easy to understand
• Specific: Not too broad
• Researchable: Possible to collect data on it
• Relevant: Important and useful

Practice Question: Which of these is a better research topic? (a) “Study of climate” or (b) “The impact of rainfall variability on crop production in Amhara Region.” Why?

Step 2: Formulating a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to your research question. It is an educated guess that you will test through your research. A hypothesis should be stated clearly and in a way that can be tested.

A hypothesis can be written in different ways. The most common forms are:

• Directional hypothesis: States the expected direction of the relationship. Example: “Increased rainfall leads to higher crop yields.”
• Non-directional hypothesis: States there is a relationship but does not specify the direction. Example: “There is a relationship between rainfall and crop yields.”
• Null hypothesis (H₀): States there is NO significant relationship. Example: “There is no significant relationship between deforestation and soil erosion.”
• Alternative hypothesis (H₁): States there IS a significant relationship. Example: “There is a significant relationship between deforestation and soil erosion.”

The null hypothesis is very important because in research, we test the null hypothesis. If we reject it, we accept the alternative hypothesis.

Step 3: Review of Related Literature

Before collecting your own data, you must review what other researchers have already written about your topic. This is called a literature review. It helps you:

• Understand what is already known about the topic
• Avoid repeating work that has already been done
• Identify gaps in knowledge that your research can fill
• Learn about the methods other researchers used

Sources for literature review include: textbooks, journal articles, government reports, previous theses, and reliable internet sources.

Think about it: If you are studying soil erosion in your area, why would it be helpful to read what previous students or scientists have written about soil erosion in similar areas?

Step 4: Research Design and Methodology

This step involves planning how you will conduct your research. You need to decide:

• Research approach: Will you use a quantitative approach (numbers, measurements, statistics) or a qualitative approach (words, descriptions, observations)? Or both?
• Data collection methods: How will you gather information? (We will discuss this in detail below.)
• Sampling technique: Who or what will you study? How will you select your sample?
• Data analysis methods: How will you analyze the data you collect?

Step 5: Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering information to answer your research question. This is a very important step. Let us look at the types of data and methods of collection in detail.

8.1.3 Types of Data

Data in geographical research can be classified in several ways:

A. Primary Data vs. Secondary Data

B. Quantitative Data vs. Qualitative Data

8.1.4 Methods of Data Collection

There are several methods of collecting primary data in geography:

1. Field Observation

This is the most basic method. You go to the study area and observe directly what is happening. For example, you might observe the types of crops grown, the condition of roads, or the pattern of settlements. Observations can be:

• Structured observation: You have a checklist of specific things to look for.
• Unstructured observation: You observe freely without a fixed checklist.
• Participant observation: You participate in the activity while observing (for example, living in a village to understand farming practices).

2. Questionnaire (Survey)

A questionnaire is a set of written questions given to people to answer. It is useful for collecting data from many people quickly. Questionnaires can contain:

• Closed-ended questions: Respondents choose from given options. Example: “What is your main source of income? (a) Farming (b) Trading (c) Employment (d) Other”
• Open-ended questions: Respondents write their own answers. Example: “What challenges do you face in farming?”
• Likert scale questions: Respondents rate their agreement. Example: “Soil erosion is a serious problem here: [Strongly Disagree / Disagree / Neutral / Agree / Strongly Agree]”

3. Interview

An interview involves asking questions directly to people face to face. Interviews can be:

• Structured interview: Fixed questions, same for every respondent.
• Unstructured interview: Flexible, like a conversation.
• Semi-structured interview: Some fixed questions, but allows follow-up questions.

4. Measurement and Instrumentation

This involves using instruments to measure physical quantities. Examples:

• Using a thermometer to measure temperature
• Using a rain gauge to measure rainfall
• Using a tape measure to measure distance or slope
• Using a GPS to record locations

5. Mapping and Sketching

Drawing maps and sketches of the study area is an important data collection method in geography. You can sketch land use patterns, settlement patterns, drainage systems, and more.

Practice: Imagine you want to study “The causes of deforestation around your town.” Which data collection methods would you use? List at least three and explain why.

8.1.5 Sampling Techniques

In most geographical research, it is impossible to study every single person, place, or feature. Instead, we study a sample — a smaller group that represents the larger group (called the population).

Key Definitions:

• Population: The entire group you want to study. Example: All farmers in Oromia Region.
• Sample: A subset of the population that you actually study. Example: 200 farmers selected from Oromia Region.
• Sampling frame: The list from which you select your sample. Example: A list of all registered farmers in selected districts.
• Sample size: The number of units in your sample.

Types of Sampling:

A. Probability Sampling — Every member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

1. Simple Random Sampling: Every member has an equal chance of being selected. You can use a random number table or draw lots.

2. Systematic Sampling: You select every k-th member from a list after a random start.

3. Stratified Sampling: You divide the population into subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic, then randomly sample from each stratum proportionally.

4. Cluster Sampling: You divide the population into clusters (naturally occurring groups), randomly select some clusters, and study ALL members in those clusters.

B. Non-Probability Sampling — Not every member has a known chance of selection.

• Convenience sampling: Select whoever is easily available. (Not recommended for serious research.)
• Purposive (judgmental) sampling: Researcher selects members based on their knowledge or relevance.
• Snowball sampling: Existing participants refer other participants. Useful for hard-to-reach populations.
• Quota sampling: Like stratified sampling but selection within strata is non-random.

Sample Size Determination

A common formula for determining sample size for a large population is:

Where:

• $n$ = required sample size
• $N$ = population size
• $e$ = margin of error (level of precision), commonly $0.05$ (5%)

Worked Example: A researcher wants to study soil conservation practices among 2,000 farmers in a district. Using a 5% margin of error, what sample size is needed?

So the researcher needs a sample of approximately 333 farmers.

Try this: If the population is 500 farmers and the margin of error is 0.05, what is the required sample size? (Try calculating before looking at the answer!)

8.1.6 Data Analysis and Presentation

After collecting data, the next step is to analyze and present it so that it can be understood easily. This is where your data becomes meaningful.

For Quantitative Data:

• Descriptive statistics: Mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation
• Measures of central tendency:

Worked Example: Calculating Mean and Range

A student recorded the following daily rainfall amounts (in mm) at a weather station for one week: 12, 15, 0, 8, 22, 18, 5

For Qualitative Data:

• Organize into themes, categories, or patterns
• Use quotations from respondents to support points
• Describe and explain findings in words

Methods of Data Presentation in Geography:

1. Tables: Organize data in rows and columns for easy comparison
2. Bar graphs: Compare quantities across categories
3. Line graphs: Show trends over time
4. Pie charts: Show proportions of a whole
5. Scatter plots: Show relationship between two variables
6. Maps: Show spatial distribution of data
7. Flow diagrams: Show processes or movement
8. Photographs and sketches: Provide visual evidence

Think about it: If you collected data on monthly temperature for one year, which type of graph would be most appropriate? Why?

8.1.7 Drawing Conclusions and Writing the Report

After analyzing your data, you need to:

1. Interpret the results: What do the findings mean? Do they answer your research question?
2. Accept or reject the hypothesis: Based on the evidence, is your hypothesis supported?
3. Draw conclusions: State clearly what you found out.
4. Make recommendations: Suggest actions based on your findings.
5. Write the research report: Present your entire study in a structured format.

Structure of a Geographical Research Report:

1. Title page
2. Acknowledgment
3. Table of contents
4. Introduction (background, problem statement, objectives, hypothesis)
5. Literature review
6. Study area description
7. Methodology (research design, data collection, sampling)
8. Data presentation and analysis
9. Discussion of findings
10. Conclusions and recommendations
11. References
12. Appendices (questionnaires, extra maps, photos)

8.2 GIS Data and Map Making Using GIS

8.2.1 What is GIS?

GIS stands for Geographic Information System. It is a computer-based system for storing, managing, analyzing, and displaying geographic data. In simple words, GIS helps us put information on a map and understand patterns and relationships in that information.

A GIS is not just a map — it is a system that links data to locations on the Earth’s surface. For example, a GIS can show not only where hospitals are located, but also how many patients each hospital serves, what diseases are common in each area, and how far people travel to reach the nearest hospital.

Have you ever used Google Maps or a navigation app on your phone? That is a simple form of GIS! It shows your location, routes, and places of interest — all linked to geographic coordinates.

8.2.2 Components of GIS

A complete GIS has five main components:

1. Hardware: The physical equipment used to run GIS. This includes:

• Computer (desktop, laptop, or server)
• GPS receiver (for collecting location data in the field)
• Digitizer (for converting paper maps to digital format)
• Printer/plotter (for printing maps)
• Storage devices (hard drives, external drives)

2. Software: The programs that run on the hardware. GIS software includes:

• ArcGIS (by Esri) — the most widely used commercial GIS software
• QGIS — free and open-source GIS software
• Google Earth — for viewing satellite imagery
• Database management software (for storing data)

3. Data: The most important component! GIS is useless without data. GIS data includes:

• Spatial data (where things are — coordinates, boundaries)
• Attribute data (what things are — population, temperature, land use type)

4. People: GIS requires trained people who can:

• Collect and enter data
• Manage the GIS system
• Analyze data and create maps
• Interpret results and make decisions

5. Methods: The rules, procedures, and models used to operate the GIS. This includes:

• Data standards (how data should be formatted)
• Analysis procedures (step-by-step methods)
• Quality control measures

8.2.3 Types of GIS Data

GIS data is classified into two main types based on how it represents features:

A. Vector Data

Vector data represents features using points, lines, and polygons:

• Points: Represent features that have a location but no significant size. Examples: a school, a hospital, a borehole, a weather station.
• Lines: Represent features that have length but no significant width. Examples: a road, a river, a railway line, a boundary between two regions.
• Polygons: Represent features that have both area and boundary. Examples: a lake, a forest, a district boundary, a farmland, a building footprint.

B. Raster Data

Raster data represents the Earth’s surface as a grid of cells (pixels), where each cell has a value. Raster data is used for continuous surfaces.

• Each cell = one pixel with a value
• Examples: satellite images, aerial photographs, digital elevation models (DEM), temperature surfaces, rainfall maps
• Higher resolution = smaller cell size = more detail

Attribute Data (Non-Spatial Data)

In addition to spatial data (location), every GIS feature has attribute data — the descriptive information about the feature stored in a table. This is stored in an attribute table.

8.2.4 Geographic Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

To put data on a map, we need a system for defining locations on the Earth’s surface. There are two main systems:

A. Geographic Coordinate System (Latitude and Longitude)

The Earth’s surface is divided using a grid of lines:

• Latitude: Lines running east-west, measuring distance north or south of the Equator (0° to 90° N or S). The Equator is 0° latitude.
• Longitude: Lines running north-south, measuring distance east or west of the Prime Meridian (0° to 180° E or W). The Prime Meridian passes through Greenwich, England.

Ethiopia’s approximate location: Latitude $3°\text{N}$ to $15°\text{N}$, Longitude $33°\text{E}$ to $48°\text{E}$.

Addis Ababa’s approximate coordinates: $9°\text{N}$, $38.7°\text{E}$.

B. Projected Coordinate Systems (Map Projections)

The Earth is a sphere (approximately), but maps are flat. When we convert the curved Earth surface to a flat map, we use a map projection. This process always causes some distortion in one or more of the following:

• Shape (angles between lines)
• Area (size of features)
• Distance (distance between points)
• Direction (bearing between points)

Types of Map Projections:

1. Conformal projections: Preserve shape (angles). Distort area. Example: Mercator projection.
2. Equal-area (equivalent) projections: Preserve area. Distort shape. Example: Albers projection.
3. Equidistant projections: Preserve distance from a central point. Example: Azimuthal equidistant.
4. Compromise projections: Try to balance all distortions. Example: Robinson projection.

8.2.5 Map Scale

Map scale is the ratio between the distance on a map and the actual distance on the ground. It tells us how much the real world has been reduced to fit on the map.

Three ways to express scale:

1. Representative Fraction (RF):

Both distances must be in the SAME units. Example: 1:50,000 means 1 unit on the map = 50,000 units on the ground.

2. Statement Scale:

Written in words. Example: “One centimeter on the map represents half a kilometer on the ground.”

3. Linear (Graphic) Scale:

A line drawn on the map divided into equal parts, each part representing a specific ground distance.

Worked Example 1: Finding RF from map and ground distances

The distance between two towns on a map is 8 cm. The actual ground distance is 40 km. Find the RF.

Worked Example 2: Finding ground distance from RF and map distance

The RF of a map is 1:100,000. The distance between two points on the map is 5 cm. What is the actual ground distance?

Worked Example 3: Finding map distance from RF and ground distance

The RF of a map is 1:250,000. The actual distance between two villages is 15 km. What distance will separate them on the map?

Worked Example 4: Converting RF to statement scale

Convert RF 1:200,000 to a statement scale.

Practice: A map has RF 1:75,000. Convert this to a statement scale. (Try before looking at the answer!)

Large Scale vs. Small Scale Maps:

8.2.6 Map Elements

A properly made map must include certain essential elements. Without these, the map is incomplete and may be difficult to understand.

1. Title: Tells what the map shows. Should be clear and specific. Example: “Land Use Map of Hawassa City, 2023.”
2. Scale: Shows the relationship between map distance and ground distance. Can be RF, statement, or linear scale.
3. Legend (Key): Explains the symbols, colors, and patterns used on the map.
4. North Arrow: Shows the direction of north. Helps the reader orient the map.
5. Source: States where the data came from. Example: “Source: Ethiopian Mapping Agency, 2022.”
6. Date: Shows when the map was created or when the data was collected.
7. Border (Neat Line): A frame around the map area.
8. Coordinate Grid: Lines of latitude and longitude (or other grid system) for locating places.
9. Inset Map: A small secondary map showing the location of the main map area within a larger region (optional but helpful).

8.2.7 Map Making Process Using GIS

Making a map using GIS involves several steps. Let us go through them one by one:

Step 1: Define the Purpose of the Map

Before you start, ask yourself: What is this map for? Who is the audience? What message should it communicate? For example, is it a map showing population density for a government planning report, or a map of tourist attractions for visitors?

Step 2: Collect and Prepare Data

Gather the spatial and attribute data you need. Data sources include:

• Field surveys (GPS data collection)
• Satellite images and aerial photographs
• Existing maps (digitized)
• Government databases (census, land use records)
• Open data sources (OpenStreetMap, etc.)

The data must be checked for accuracy, completeness, and consistency. This is called data cleaning.

Step 3: Data Entry and Digitization

If data is in paper form, it must be converted to digital format. This process is called digitization. There are two methods:

• Heads-up digitizing: Tracing features on screen over a scanned map or satellite image.
• Tablet digitizing: Using a digitizer tablet and puck to trace features from a paper map.

During digitization, you create vector features (points, lines, polygons) and enter their attributes in the attribute table.

Step 4: Data Analysis (Optional)

Depending on your purpose, you may need to analyze the data. Common GIS analysis operations include:

• Buffer: Creating a zone around a feature at a specified distance. Example: Creating a 2 km buffer around a river to show the protected area.
• Overlay: Combining two or more layers to find relationships. Example: Overlaying a soil type layer with a land use layer.
• Query: Selecting features based on their attributes. Example: Selecting all schools with more than 500 students.
• Clip: Cutting one layer using the boundary of another layer.
• Reclassification: Grouping data values into categories.

Step 5: Map Design and Layout

This is where you compose the final map by arranging all elements:

• Add the map frame (the main mapped area)
• Choose appropriate colors, symbols, and patterns
• Add the title, legend, scale bar, north arrow
• Add source, date, and other annotations
• Ensure the design is clean, readable, and not cluttered

Step 6: Review and Output

Review the map for errors. Check that all elements are present and correct. Then export or print the map in the required format (PDF, image file, printed copy).

8.2.8 Applications of GIS in Geography

GIS has many applications in geography and everyday life:

1. Urban and Regional Planning: Planning land use, roads, water supply, and infrastructure.
2. Agriculture: Mapping soil types, crop distribution, and planning irrigation.
3. Environmental Management: Monitoring deforestation, erosion, pollution, and wildlife habitats.
4. Disaster Management: Mapping flood zones, earthquake risk areas, and planning evacuation routes.
5. Transportation: Planning road networks, analyzing traffic patterns, and navigation.
6. Health: Mapping disease distribution, locating health facilities, and planning health services.
7. Education: Mapping school locations, analyzing access to education, and planning new schools.
8. Water Resources: Mapping watershed boundaries, groundwater potential, and water quality.

Can you think of how GIS could be used in your own community? For example, could it help plan where to build a new school or clinic?