ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY – Freshman Courses

1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts

The word “psychology” is derived from two Greek words: “psyche” (meaning mind, soul, or spirit) and “logos” (meaning study, knowledge, or discourse). Thus, etymologically, psychology means “the study of the mind or soul.” It is often symbolized by the Greek letter Ψ (psi).

This definition contains three critical components:

1. Science: Psychology uses the scientific method—systematic observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis—to study phenomena. It rejects commonsense assumptions in favor of empirical evidence. 🧪
2. Behavior: This refers to all observable and measurable actions—talking, facial expressions, movement, etc. Psychology also considers covert behavior, which is internal and not directly observable (e.g., thinking).
3. Mental Processes: These are internal, covert activities of the mind—thinking, feeling, remembering, problem-solving, and perceiving. Though not directly visible, they shape behavior.

1.2. Goals of Psychology

As a science, psychology has four primary goals:

1. Description: Observing and recording behavior. Questions include: What is happening? To whom? Where? Under what conditions?
   Example: A teacher notices a freshman girl is failing assignments, seems withdrawn, and shows negative attitude.
2. Explanation: Identifying causes of behavior through theories. Why is it happening?
   The teacher investigates and learns the girl receives attention (a reward) when she acts oddly—reinforcing the behavior.
3. Prediction: Forecasting future behavior based on patterns. What will happen next?
   The psychologist predicts the girl may not reach her academic potential without intervention.
4. Control (or Modification): Changing behavior from undesirable to desirable. How can it be changed?
   The teacher introduces learning strategies to improve her performance—thus controlling the outcome.

1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology

Psychology is a relatively new science—only about 145 years old. It became a formal discipline in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt used objective introspection—a method of examining conscious experience scientifically—and is regarded as the “father of modern psychology.”

1.3.1. Early Schools of Psychology

A school of thought is a unified system for explaining behavior or mental processes. Five early schools emerged:

1.3.2. Modern Schools of Psychology

Today’s psychologists integrate multiple perspectives. Six dominate:

1. Psychodynamic: Evolved from Freud. Focuses on unconscious drives, childhood, and internal conflict. Used in therapy.
2. Behavioral: Studies how environment (rewards/punishments) shapes behavior. Ignores internal states—treats mind as a “black box.” 📦
3. Humanistic (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow): Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human potential. “People are inherently good.” 💖
4. Cognitive: Studies mental processes—memory, problem-solving, language. Uses brain imaging and experiments. 🧠
5. Biological: Examines how genes, brain chemistry, and evolution influence behavior. (e.g., serotonin and depression).
6. Socio-cultural: Analyzes how culture, society, and group dynamics shape thoughts and actions. (e.g., collectivist vs. individualist societies).

1.4. Branches/Subfields of Psychology

Psychology is highly diverse. Key subfields include:

• Developmental Psychology: Studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan—from infancy to old age.
• Personality Psychology: Explores enduring traits (e.g., aggression, self-concept) that make individuals unique.
• Social Psychology: Examines how people think about, influence, and relate to one another (e.g., prejudice, conformity).
• Cross-Cultural Psychology: Compares behavior across cultures to identify universal vs. culture-specific traits.
• Industrial-Organizational (I/O): Applies psychology to workplace—productivity, leadership, employee satisfaction.
• Forensic Psychology: Works within legal system—jury selection, criminal profiling, competency evaluations.
• Educational Psychology: Improves teaching/learning processes, curriculum design, and student motivation.
• Health Psychology: Studies how psychological factors affect physical health (e.g., stress → heart disease).
• Clinical Psychology: Diagnoses and treats severe mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, major depression).
• Counseling Psychology: Helps people cope with everyday challenges (e.g., career stress, relationship issues)—less severe than clinical cases.

1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

A. Key Terms

• Scientific Method: A systematic process to reduce bias: observe → hypothesize → test → conclude → share.
• Theory: An integrated explanation of observed facts (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy).
• Hypothesis: A testable prediction (e.g., “Students with tutorial support perform better”).

B. Major Research Methods

1. Descriptive Methods: Observe and record behavior without interference.
   • Naturalistic Observation: Watch subjects in natural settings (e.g., children on playground).
     ⚠️ Limitations: Observer effect, bias.
   • Case Study: In-depth analysis of one individual (e.g., Phineas Gage).
     ⚠️ Limitation: Not generalizable.
   • Survey: Collect data from large groups via questionnaires.
     ⚠️ Limitation: Requires representative sampling.
2. Correlational Method: Measures relationship between two variables (e.g., hours studied vs. exam scores).

   ⚠️ Correlation ≠ Causation! Ice cream sales and drowning both rise in summer—but one doesn’t cause the other! 🍦🏊

3. Experimental Method: Only method that establishes cause-and-effect.
   • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated by researcher (e.g., class size).
   • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome (e.g., test scores).
   • Experimental Group: Receives IV manipulation.
   • Control Group: Baseline—no IV manipulation.
   • Random Assignment: Ensures groups are equivalent at start.

C. Steps of Scientific Research

1. Define the Problem: Observe a phenomenon (e.g., “Kids get aggressive after violent cartoons”).
2. Formulate Hypothesis: “Children who watch violent cartoons show more aggression.”
3. Test Hypothesis: Use experiments/surveys to collect data.
4. Draw Conclusions: Analyze data—support or reject hypothesis?
5. Report Results: Publish findings for peer review and replication.