Social, Economic and Political Developments in Ethiopia, Mid, 19th C. to 1941: Detailed Notes & Exam Questions | Grade 12 History Unit 3

Welcome, dear student! In this unit, we are going to study the remarkable story of Ethiopia from the middle of the 19th century to 1941. This is one of the most important periods in Ethiopian history because it covers the reunification of the country, the victory at Adwa, and the struggle against Italian invasion. Ethiopia is special because it was one of only two African countries that avoided formal colonization. Let us go step by step and understand how this happened.

3.1 Long Distance Trade and Peoples’ Interaction in Ethiopia in the 19th Century

3.1.1 Overview of Long Distance Trade

Long distance trade has been a central feature of Ethiopian economic and social life for centuries. In the 19th century, trade connected different regions of Ethiopia with each other and with the outside world — Sudan, Egypt, the Red Sea coast, the Arabian Peninsula, and beyond. This trade was not just about goods — it also brought people, ideas, religions, and cultures into contact with each other.

Have you ever wondered how people in different parts of Ethiopia got items they could not produce locally? For example, how did people in the highlands get salt from the lowlands? That is what long distance trade was all about.

3.1.2 Major Trade Routes

Several important trade routes crisscrossed the Ethiopian region in the 19th century:

3.1.3 Major Trade Commodities

The goods traded through these routes were diverse and reflected the different ecological zones of Ethiopia:

Notice something important: salt was one of the most important trade items. In the Ethiopian highlands, salt was essential for human and animal diet. It was so valuable that salt blocks (called amole) were sometimes used as a form of money — people could buy goods with salt! Think about that — salt was almost like currency.

3.1.4 Peoples Involved in Trade

Long distance trade involved many different peoples, and this interaction shaped Ethiopian society:

• Muslim merchants played a dominant role, especially in the eastern and southeastern trade routes connecting to Harar, the Somali coast, and Arabia. These included Somali, Afar, Harari, and Arab merchants.
• Christian highland merchants were active in the northern and central trade routes, particularly in the Gojjam-Gondar area and in Shewa.
• Oromo merchants from the southwest participated in trade, especially in coffee, ivory, and slaves from the Kaffa and Jimma areas.
• Diaspora merchants — Indian, Armenian, and Greek merchants — were involved in Red Sea trade and operated from ports like Massawa.
• Caravan leaders organized and protected trade caravans, which sometimes included hundreds of people and pack animals (mules, donkeys, camels).

3.1.5 Impact of Long Distance Trade

Long distance trade had profound effects on Ethiopian society:

Economic Impact:

• Trade created wealth for merchants and for rulers who taxed trade routes.
• It encouraged the production of cash commodities like coffee, ivory, and beeswax.
• It connected different ecological zones — highland grain was exchanged for lowland salt, creating economic interdependence.

Social Impact:

• Trade brought different ethnic and religious communities into contact, promoting cultural exchange but also sometimes conflict.
• Trade towns and markets grew at key points along routes — places like Gondar, Harar, Jimma, and Ankober became important commercial centers.
• The slave trade, which was a significant part of long distance commerce, had devastating social consequences for the southern and southwestern peoples who were raided for slaves.

Political Impact:

• Control over trade routes was a source of political power. Rulers who controlled key routes and markets could accumulate wealth and military power.
• Competition over trade routes contributed to political rivalries between regional rulers.
• The wealth from trade helped some rulers — like those of Shewa and Gojjam — build up the military capacity that would later be used in the process of national unification.

3.2 Power Rivalry and Consolidating Central Government, 1855–1913

3.2.1 The Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes)

Before we can understand how Ethiopia was reunified, we need to understand the period that came before — the Zemene Mesafint, which means “Era of the Princes” or “Era of the Judges.” This period lasted from approximately \(1769\) to \(1855\).

During the Zemene Mesafint, the Ethiopian central government was extremely weak. The Emperor in Gondar had become a figurehead with little real power. Instead, regional lords (called ras or dejazmach) exercised real power in their own territories. These regional lords constantly fought each other for dominance.

The key features of the Zemene Mesafint were:

• Weak central authority: The Emperor was often a puppet controlled by whichever regional lord was currently most powerful.
• Regional rivalry: Powerful regional lords from Tigray, Gojjam, Begemdir, Shewa, and Wollo fought for supremacy.
• Religious controversy: There were deep theological disputes within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (between the Sost Lidet and Tewahido doctrines), which became entangled with political rivalries.
• External interference: Muslim neighbors and European powers sometimes took advantage of Ethiopia’s disunity.
• Economic disruption: Constant warfare disrupted trade, agriculture, and daily life.

3.2.2 Emperor Tewodros II (1855–1868)

Tewodros II (born Kassa Hailu) was the man who ended the Zemene Mesafint and began the process of reuniting Ethiopia. He is one of the most important figures in Ethiopian history. Let me tell you his story step by step.

Early Life and Rise to Power:

Kassa Hailu was born around \(1818\) in Qwara, in northwestern Ethiopia. He was the son of a local chief. After his father’s death, Kassa had a difficult childhood and youth, but he was determined and resourceful. He became a shifta (bandit/outlaw) for a time — which was actually a common path for ambitious men in the chaotic Zemene Mesafint. He gathered followers and built a reputation as a skilled and courageous fighter.

Through a series of military victories, Kassa defeated the powerful regional lords one by one:

• He defeated Dejazmach Wube of Tigray and Semien at the Battle of Deresge (February \(1855\)).
• He defeated Ras Ali II of Begemdir, who had been the most powerful figure in the Zemene Mesafint.

In \(1855\), Kassa was crowned Emperor and took the throne name Tewodros II. His coronation signaled the end of the Zemene Mesafint and the beginning of a new era of centralization.

Tewodros’s Reforms and Vision:

Tewodros was not just a military conqueror — he had a grand vision for Ethiopia. His reforms included:

1. Centralization of power: He tried to break the power of regional lords and bring all territories under direct imperial control. He appointed his own governors and required regional lords to come to his court, where some were imprisoned or executed if they resisted.
2. Military modernization: Tewodros dreamed of building a modern, unified army equipped with firearms. He tried to establish domestic weapons manufacturing at Gafat (near Debre Tabor), where his craftsmen attempted to produce cannons and firearms.
3. Administrative reforms: He attempted to standardize administration and reduce corruption. He personally heard court cases and punished corrupt officials severely — sometimes brutally.
4. Religious reforms: Tewodros tried to resolve the doctrinal disputes within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that had contributed to political fragmentation. He convened a council to settle the Sost Lidet controversy.
5. Reduction of the slave trade: Tewodros opposed the slave trade and tried to suppress it, though with limited success.

Tewodros’s Foreign Policy and Downfall:

Tewodros wanted to establish diplomatic relations with European powers, especially Britain, to obtain modern weapons and skilled craftsmen. He wrote letters to Queen Victoria of Britain and other European monarchs. However, his letters went unanswered or received unsatisfactory responses — which deeply angered him.

When the British Consul, Captain Charles Cameron, failed to deliver a satisfactory response, Tewodros imprisoned him and other Europeans in \(1864\). This led to the British Expedition to Magdala in \(1868\). A large British force led by General Robert Napier marched to Magdala, Tewodros’s mountain fortress.

Facing defeat, Tewodros chose to die rather than be captured. He shot himself with a pistol that Queen Victoria had gifted him — a deeply symbolic act. The British looted and burned Magdala, taking Ethiopian treasures (including manuscripts and religious objects) to Britain.

3.2.3 Emperor Yohannes IV (1872–1889)

After Tewodros’s death in \(1868\), Ethiopia entered another period of power rivalry. Eventually, Kassa Mercha of Tigray emerged victorious. He was crowned Emperor in \(1872\) as Yohannes IV.

Rise to Power: Yohannes had been a powerful regional lord in Tigray. After Tewodros’s death, he defeated two rivals for the throne — Tekle Giyorgis II at the Battle of Assam (\(1871\)) and Menelik of Shewa (who submitted and acknowledged Yohannes as emperor). Menelik was allowed to remain as Negus (King) of Shewa.

Yohannes’s Challenges and Achievements:

Yohannes faced enormous external threats during his reign. His reign was dominated by defending Ethiopia against foreign invasions:

1. Egyptian Threat: Egypt, under Khedive Ismail, had expansionist ambitions in the Horn of Africa. Egyptian forces occupied the Ethiopian port of Massawa in \(1865\) and invaded Ethiopian territory from the north and east. Yohannes defeated the Egyptians at two major battles:

• Battle of Gundet (November 1875): Yohannes’s forces annihilated an Egyptian army that had invaded from Massawa.
• Battle of Gura (March 1876): Yohannes defeated an even larger Egyptian force, capturing modern weapons and equipment.

2. Mahdist Threat: After the Mahdist revolution overthrew Egyptian rule in Sudan (\(1885\)), the Mahdist state became a threat to Ethiopia’s western borders. The Mahdists attacked Ethiopian territory, leading to several battles. Yohannes personally led his army against the Mahdists.

3. Italian Threat: Italy had taken control of Massawa from Egypt in \(1885\). Yohannes was suspicious of Italian intentions and prepared to confront them. However, the Italian threat would primarily fall to his successor, Menelik II.

Yohannes’s Religious Policy: Yohannes was deeply religious and tried to use religion as a unifying force. In \(1878\), he convened the Council of Boru Meda, which attempted to settle the religious disputes in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The council declared the Tewahido doctrine as the official position and required all Ethiopians to adhere to it. Those who refused (mainly Catholics and Protestants in Shewa) were given the choice to convert or face punishment.

Death of Yohannes: In March \(1889\), while fighting the Mahdists at the Battle of Metemma, Yohannes was fatally wounded by a Mahdist bullet. He died on the battlefield, choosing to fight alongside his soldiers rather than retreat. His death was a tremendous loss for Ethiopia.

3.2.4 Emperor Menelik II (1889–1913)

Menelik II is perhaps the most celebrated emperor in Ethiopian history. He completed the process of reunification, expanded Ethiopia’s territory, modernized the country, and led Ethiopia to its greatest victory — the Battle of Adwa.

Early Career: Menelik (born Sahle Mariam) became King (Negus) of Shewa in \(1865\) while still a young man. During Yohannes’s reign, he was nominally subordinate to the Emperor but in practice governed Shewa independently. From his base in Shewa, Menelik built up his power, expanded his territory southward, and established contacts with European powers to obtain modern weapons.

Becoming Emperor: When Yohannes died at Metemma in \(1889\), Menelik was the most powerful ruler in Ethiopia and claimed the imperial throne. He was crowned as Emperor Menelik II in \(1889\).

Menelik’s Major Achievements:

1. Territorial Expansion: Menelik greatly expanded Ethiopia’s territory to the south, southeast, and southwest. Through a combination of military conquest, diplomacy, and agreements with local rulers, he incorporated territories inhabited by Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Somali, and other peoples. Key conquests included:

• The kingdom of Kaffa (conquered in \(1897\))
• The kingdom of Jimma (submitted in \(1884\), formally incorporated later)
• The city of Harar (occupied in \(1887\))
• Various Oromo, Sidama, and Somali territories in the south and southeast

2. Modernization: Menelik pursued an ambitious modernization program:

• He imported large quantities of modern rifles and artillery from France, Russia, Italy, and other European powers.
• He built the first modern infrastructure — the railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa (begun in \(1897\)), the telephone system, the telegraph, and the first modern roads.
• He established a modern cabinet with ministers responsible for different government departments.
• He founded Addis Ababa as the new capital in \(1886/1887\), replacing Entoto.
• He introduced the first modern currency (the Menelik II currency), the postal system, and modern schools.

3. The Victory of Adwa (1896): This was Menelik’s greatest achievement. As discussed in Unit 2, Menelik led a force of about \(100{,}000\) Ethiopian soldiers to a decisive victory over Italy at the Battle of Adwa on March \(1\), \(1896\). This victory ensured Ethiopia’s independence and forced Italy to recognize Ethiopian sovereignty in the Treaty of Addis Ababa (\(1896\)).

4. Diplomacy: Menelik was a skilled diplomat who played European powers against each other. He obtained weapons and support from France and Russia (who were rivals of Italy) while managing relations with Britain. He also signed boundary agreements with neighboring colonial powers (British East Africa, Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland) to secure Ethiopia’s borders.

3.3 Territorial Expansion and the Incorporation of Kingdoms

3.3.1 The Nature of the Expansion

One of the most significant developments in this period was the territorial expansion of the Ethiopian state under Menelik II. Between the \(1880\)s and about \(1900\), Ethiopia roughly doubled in size by incorporating territories to the south, southeast, southwest, and east.

Before Menelik’s expansion, the Ethiopian state was primarily limited to the northern and central highlands — Tigray, Gojjam, Begemdir, Wollo, and Shewa. The southern, southwestern, and southeastern regions were home to independent kingdoms and peoples — Oromo kingdoms (like Jimma, Limmu-Ennarea, Guma, Gera), the Sidama, the Kaffa kingdom, Gurage areas, and various Somali clans.

3.3.2 Methods of Incorporation

Menelik used different methods to incorporate different territories:

1. Military conquest: Some kingdoms resisted and were conquered by force. The kingdom of Kaffa fought fiercely before being defeated in \(1897\). The last Kaffa king, Tato Gaki Sherocho, was captured and exiled.
2. Peaceful submission: Some rulers submitted to Menelik voluntarily, recognizing that resistance was futile. The kingdom of Jimma, under Abba Jifar, submitted in \(1884\) in exchange for maintaining a degree of internal autonomy.
3. Diplomatic agreements: Some territories were incorporated through treaties and agreements that defined the terms of submission, often allowing local rulers to keep some authority under Ethiopian overlordship.
4. Settlement and colonization: After incorporation, Menelik settled soldiers (called neftegna — “rifle bearers”) and administrators from the northern highlands in the newly conquered territories. These settlers became a new ruling class in the south.

3.3.3 Consequences of Territorial Expansion

The territorial expansion had profound and lasting consequences:

Positive Consequences:

• Larger, stronger state: Ethiopia became a much larger country with more resources, population, and strategic depth, which helped it maintain independence during the Scramble for Africa.
• Access to new resources: The south provided coffee (from Kaffa, Jimma), fertile agricultural land, and other economic resources.
• Strategic borders: Expansion pushed Ethiopia’s borders closer to the colonial territories, giving Menelik more bargaining power in boundary negotiations with European powers.

Negative Consequences:

• Land alienation: The best agricultural land in the south was often taken and given to northern settlers (neftegna), churches, and the imperial family. Southern farmers became tenants or were pushed onto marginal land.
• Exploitation: The southern peoples were subjected to heavy taxation, forced labor, and economic exploitation by the new northern ruling class.
• Cultural and political marginalization: The languages, cultures, and political systems of the southern peoples were suppressed. Amharic became the language of administration, and northern political institutions were imposed.
• Ethnic inequality: A hierarchical system developed in which northern (especially Amhara and Tigrayan) peoples held political and economic power while southern peoples were treated as second-class subjects. This created ethnic tensions that continue to affect Ethiopian politics today.
• Loss of sovereignty: Independent kingdoms like Kaffa, Jimma, and various Oromo states lost their sovereignty and were absorbed into the Ethiopian empire.

3.4 External Relations, Challenges and Threats

3.4.1 Relations with European Powers

Ethiopia’s external relations in this period were dominated by the need to navigate the Scramble for Africa while maintaining independence. Ethiopia’s leaders dealt with multiple European powers, each with different interests:

Relations with Italy: Italy was the most directly threatening European power. After taking Massawa in \(1885\), Italy sought to expand into the Ethiopian highlands. The Treaty of Wuchale (\(1889\)) was the key point of conflict — as discussed in Unit 2, the Amharic and Italian versions differed on whether Ethiopia was an Italian protectorate. This led to the Battle of Adwa (\(1896\)), which resolved the issue in Ethiopia’s favor through the Treaty of Addis Ababa.

Relations with Britain: Britain’s policy toward Ethiopia was pragmatic and self-interested. Britain saw Ethiopia as a buffer state protecting its interests in Egypt and the Nile Valley. Britain generally supported Ethiopian independence but was also sometimes unreliable. For example, Britain supported Italy’s claim to Eritrea and did not actively support Ethiopia against Italy before Adwa (though it also did not actively oppose Ethiopia).

Relations with France: France was generally sympathetic to Ethiopia, partly because France and Italy were rivals in the Mediterranean and Horn of Africa. France provided weapons to Menelik and supported Ethiopia diplomatically. The French also built the railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa, which served both Ethiopian and French commercial interests.

Relations with Russia: Russia had cultural and religious connections to Ethiopia through the shared Orthodox Christian faith. Russia provided weapons and diplomatic support to Ethiopia, especially before and during the Italo-Ethiopian conflict. A Russian medical mission was sent to Ethiopia.

3.4.2 The Tripartite Treaty of 1906

One of the most significant diplomatic events of this period was the Tripartite Treaty of \(1906\), signed by Britain, France, and Italy. This treaty is extremely important for understanding Ethiopia’s external challenges.

What was the Tripartite Treaty? The three European powers — Britain, France, and Italy — signed a secret agreement that essentially divided Ethiopia into three spheres of influence:

Key Points:

• The treaty was signed without Ethiopia’s consent or knowledge at the time — similar to how the Berlin Conference treated Africa.
• The three powers agreed to “maintain the integrity and independence of Ethiopia” — but this was hypocritical, since they were simultaneously dividing Ethiopia into spheres of influence.
• The treaty meant that each power would not interfere in the others’ sphere, effectively limiting Ethiopia’s freedom of action.
• Menelik was deeply angered when he learned of this treaty but was too weak militarily to challenge it directly.

3.4.3 Boundary Agreements

Menelik also signed several boundary agreements with European colonial powers to define Ethiopia’s borders. These agreements were a mixed achievement:

• With Italy: After Adwa, the Treaty of Addis Ababa (\(1896\)) recognized Ethiopian independence. Later agreements defined the border between Ethiopia and Italian Eritrea.
• With Britain: Agreements defined the border between Ethiopia and British Somaliland, British East Africa (Kenya), and the Sudan.
• With France: Agreements defined the border between Ethiopia and French Somaliland (Djibouti).

These boundary agreements fixed Ethiopia’s borders in most directions, but some areas remained disputed — most notably the Ogaden region (claimed by both Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland) and the Haud area.

3.5 The Victory of Adwa

3.5.1 Background and Causes of the Conflict

The Battle of Adwa was the culmination of growing tensions between Ethiopia and Italy. As discussed in Unit 2, the immediate cause was the dispute over the Treaty of Wuchale (\(1889\)), whose Amharic and Italian versions differed on the question of whether Ethiopia was an Italian protectorate.

When Menelik discovered the discrepancy, he repudiated the Italian interpretation. In February \(1893\), Menelik formally renounced the Treaty of Wuchale. Italy responded by invading Ethiopia from Eritrea in \(1895\).

3.5.2 Menelik’s Preparation

Menelik did not rush into war — he prepared carefully for years:

1. Weapons accumulation: Menelik purchased thousands of modern rifles from France, Russia, Italy itself (before the break), and other sources. By the time of Adwa, his army was well-armed.
2. Ammunition stockpiling: He stockpiled large quantities of ammunition — a critical factor, since an army without bullets for its modern rifles would be helpless.
3. National mobilization: Menelik called upon all the regions and peoples of Ethiopia to contribute soldiers. Forces came from Tigray, Gojjam, Shewa, Wollo, and other regions. This was a truly national effort.
4. Diplomatic preparation: He maintained good relations with France and Russia, ensuring continued weapons supplies and preventing other European powers from joining Italy’s side.
5. Strategic retreat: Rather than engaging the Italian army immediately, Menelik withdrew his forces deep into Ethiopian territory, stretching Italian supply lines and choosing the battlefield on his own terms.

3.5.3 The Battle

On March \(1\), \(1896\), the two armies met at Adwa in Tigray. The Ethiopian force, estimated at about \(100{,}000\) soldiers, faced an Italian force of about \(17{,}000\) (including Italian regular soldiers and Eritrean askaris).

The battle was a complete Ethiopian victory. Ethiopian forces outflanked, surrounded, and defeated the Italian army in a single day of fighting. Italian casualties were approximately \(7{,}000\) killed (including about \(3{,}000\) Italians), \(1{,}500\) wounded, and \(3{,}000\) captured. Ethiopian casualties were also significant but much lower in proportion.

3.5.4 Results and Significance

The Treaty of Addis Ababa (October \(1896\)) ended the war:

• Italy recognized Ethiopia’s full independence.
• The Treaty of Wuchale was abrogated.
• Italy retained Eritrea but abandoned all claims to a protectorate over Ethiopia.

Significance:

• Ethiopia became the only African country (with Liberia) to defeat a European colonial power and remain independent.
• It shattered the myth of European invincibility.
• It inspired anti-colonial movements across Africa and the world.
• It enhanced Ethiopia’s international prestige.
• It forced the European powers to treat Ethiopia with more respect in subsequent diplomatic dealings.

3.6 Religious Reforms

3.6.1 The Role of Religion in Ethiopian Politics

Religion has always played a central role in Ethiopian politics and society. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church was not just a religious institution — it was deeply involved in governance, education, culture, and national identity. The Emperor was considered God’s anointed representative, and the Church provided the ideological justification for royal authority.

However, the Church was also a source of division. In the 19th century, deep theological disputes within the Church contributed to political fragmentation during the Zemene Mesafint. The main dispute was between:

• Tewahido (“Unity”): The belief that Christ has a single, unified nature (the position that eventually became official).
• Sost Lidet (“Three Births”): The belief in three separate births or natures of Christ.

3.6.2 Tewodros’s Religious Reforms

Tewodros II recognized that religious division was weakening Ethiopia. He tried to resolve the doctrinal dispute by convening a council, but his efforts were not fully successful because the dispute was deeply rooted and politically charged.

Tewodros also tried to reform the Church’s role in society. He was critical of what he saw as the Church’s excessive landholdings and its political interference. He wanted to reduce the Church’s secular power and redirect its resources toward national development.

3.6.3 Yohannes IV and the Council of Boru Meda (1878)

Yohannes IV took a more forceful approach to religious reform. In \(1878\), he convened the Council of Boru Meda, which was a gathering of Church leaders and nobility. The council made two key decisions:

1. Tewahido doctrine was declared the official doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. All other doctrines were declared heretical.
2. All Ethiopians were required to adhere to Tewahido. Those who refused — mainly Catholics in Shewa (associated with Menelik’s circle) and some Protestants — were given the choice to convert or face punishment.

The Council of Boru Meda had significant political implications. It strengthened Yohannes’s authority by giving him religious legitimacy, and it put pressure on Menelik of Shewa (whose territory contained many Catholics). This was both a genuine religious reform and a political move to weaken potential rivals.

3.6.4 Menelik II and Religious Policy

Menelik II took a more pragmatic approach to religion. He was less interested in doctrinal disputes and more interested in practical governance. Under Menelik:

• The Tewahido doctrine remained the official position, but Menelik was more tolerant of religious diversity than Yohannes had been.
• Catholic and Protestant missionaries were allowed to operate more freely, especially in the southern territories.
• Menelik saw missionaries as a potential source of modern education and technical skills, even though he remained personally committed to the Orthodox Church.
• Islamic communities in Harar, Jimma, and the east were generally allowed to practice their religion, though they were politically subordinate.

3.7 Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906–1935

3.7.1 Menelik’s Illness and the Succession Crisis

After about \(1906\), Emperor Menelik II’s health began to decline seriously. He suffered a series of strokes that left him increasingly incapacitated. This created a power vacuum and an intense struggle among the ruling elite to control the succession.

The main contenders for power were:

• Lij Iyasu: Menelik’s grandson (son of Menelik’s daughter Shewaregga), whom Menelik had designated as his heir in \(1909\).
• Empress Taytu Betul: Menelik’s wife, who was a strong and politically influential figure. She tried to maintain power during Menelik’s illness but was opposed by other nobles.
• Ras Tessema Nadew: Appointed as regent/caretaker during Menelik’s illness, but he also died in \(1911\).
• Various regional lords (ras): Powerful nobles like Ras Tafari Makonnen, Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Wolde Giyorgis, and others maneuvered for position.

3.7.2 Lij Iyasu (1913–1916)

When Menelik died in December \(1913\), Lij Iyasu (officially Iyasu V) became the de facto ruler, though he was never formally crowned as emperor.

Lij Iyasu’s Policies: Lij Iyasu was young, unconventional, and controversial. His policies included:

• Closer relations with Muslims: Iyasu spent much time in the eastern and southeastern parts of Ethiopia, developed close friendships with Muslim leaders, and was accused of converting to Islam (though this is debated by historians). This alarmed the Orthodox Christian establishment.
• Opposition to the Shewan elite: Iyasu tried to reduce the power of the Shewan nobility that had dominated under Menelik, which made him powerful enemies.
• Pro-German sympathies: During World War I, Iyasu seemed to favor Germany and the Ottoman Empire (both Muslim powers were fighting against Britain, France, and Italy). This alarmed the Allied powers who dominated the region.

Downfall of Lij Iyasu: Iyasu’s combination of religious unorthodoxy, political enemies, and diplomatic miscalculation led to his downfall. In September \(1916\), the nobility, Church, and military declared Iyasu deposed, citing his “apostasy” (abandonment of Christianity) as the official reason. The real reasons were more political — the Shewan elite and the Church felt threatened by Iyasu’s policies.

Iyasu was never captured despite years of pursuit. He remained a fugitive in the wilderness until he was eventually captured in \(1921\) and imprisoned for the rest of his life. He died in \(1935\).

3.7.3 Empress Zewditu (1916–1930)

After deposing Lij Iyasu, the nobility installed Empress Zewditu (Menelik’s daughter) as empress. However, real power was held by her regent and heir apparent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, who would later become Emperor Haile Selassie I.

The Dual Power Structure: This created an unusual and sometimes tense arrangement:

• Zewditu was the empress — the symbolic head of state and the defender of tradition.
• Ras Tafari was the regent — the actual head of government who handled day-to-day administration and foreign policy.
• Zewditu was more conservative and religious; Tafari was more modernist and reform-minded.
• This tension between conservative and modernist factions would play out throughout Zewditu’s reign.

  Key Events during Zewditu’s Reign:

  • Entry into the League of Nations (1923): Ras Tafari successfully negotiated Ethiopia’s admission to the League of Nations, giving Ethiopia international recognition and prestige.
  • Reforms: Tafari introduced various reforms — modern education, abolition of slavery (in stages), legal reforms, and infrastructure development.
  • Ras Gugsa Welle’s Rebellion (1930): Ras Gugsa Welle, Zewditu’s husband, led a rebellion against Ras Tafari’s growing power. The rebellion was defeated, and Gugsa was killed. Empress Zewditu died shortly afterward (April \(1930\)), under circumstances that remain debated by historians.

  3.7.4 Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1935, and beyond)

  After Zewditu’s death in \(1930\), Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned as Emperor Haile Selassie I (meaning “Power of the Trinity”). His coronation was a lavish international event attended by representatives from many countries.

  Haile Selassie’s Early Reforms (1930–1935):

  In the five years between his coronation and the Italian invasion, Haile Selassie introduced significant reforms:

  1. Constitution (1931): Ethiopia’s first written constitution, which established a bicameral parliament (though with limited powers — the Emperor retained real authority).
  2. Modern education: Expansion of modern schools, including the Tafari Makonnen School and sending students abroad for education.
  3. Legal reforms: Attempts to modernize the legal system, including efforts to regulate government administration and reduce corruption.
  4. Abolition of slavery: Continued the process of abolishing slavery, which was formally prohibited.
  5. Infrastructure: Continued development of roads, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.
  6. Financial reforms: Established the Bank of Ethiopia and attempted to modernize the financial system.

  3.7.5 The Italian Invasion of 1935–1936

  Despite all these reforms, Ethiopia faced its greatest crisis when Italy invaded in October \(1935\). Under the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, Italy wanted to avenge its humiliation at Adwa and establish a new Roman Empire in Africa.

  Why Ethiopia could not repeat the Adwa victory:

  • Italy was much stronger in \(1935\) than in \(1896\) — it had a modern industrialized military with aircraft, tanks, and chemical weapons.
  • Ethiopia was weaker politically — the years of power struggle (1906–1930) had weakened central authority.
  • No external support: Unlike in \(1896\), Ethiopia received no meaningful external support. The League of Nations, which Ethiopia had joined in \(1923\), condemned Italy but did nothing effective to stop the invasion.
  • Chemical weapons: Italy used poison gas (mustard gas) against Ethiopian soldiers and civilians, causing horrific suffering. This was a war crime that the international community failed to punish at the time.

  The Italians occupied Addis Ababa in May \(1936\). Haile Selassie went into exile and made a famous speech to the League of Nations, pleading for help — but the League failed to act. Italy formally annexed Ethiopia, combining it with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland into “Italian East Africa.”

  Ethiopia remained under Italian occupation from \(1936\) to \(1941\), when a combined force of Ethiopian patriots and British forces defeated the Italians during World War II, restoring Haile Selassie to the throne.

  Key Exam Notes — Power Struggle (1906–1935):
  • Lij Iyasu (1913–1916): Menelik’s heir; controversial for Muslim ties and anti-Shewan policies; deposed in \(1916\) for “apostasy”
  • Empress Zewditu (1916–1930): Symbolic empress; real power with Ras Tafari; League of Nations entry (\(1923\))
  • Haile Selassie I (from 1930): Constitution (\(1931\)), modern education, legal reforms, abolition of slavery
  • Italian Invasion (1935–36): Mussolini wanted revenge for Adwa; used chemical weapons; League of Nations failed Ethiopia; Haile Selassie exiled
  • Key contrast: Adwa (\(1896\)) — Ethiopia won; Italian invasion (\(1935\)) — Ethiopia lost. Why? Italy much stronger, Ethiopia politically weaker, no external support, chemical weapons
  Practice Question 10: Why was Lij Iyasu deposed in 1916? Discuss the political and religious factors.
  Show Answer
  Answer: Lij Iyasu was deposed in September \(1916\) by a coalition of nobility, Church leaders, and military commanders. The factors behind his deposition were:
  
  Religious Factors:
  1. Iyasu developed close relationships with Muslim leaders in the eastern and southeastern regions of Ethiopia, spending considerable time there and participating in Muslim activities.
  2. He was accused of having converted to Islam — though historians debate whether this actually happened, the perception was politically damaging.
  3. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which had been declared defender of Tewahido orthodoxy since the Council of Boru Meda (\(1878\)), saw Iyasu’s behavior as a threat and formally declared him an apostate (someone who abandons the faith).
  
  Political Factors:
  1. Iyasu tried to reduce the power of the Shewan nobility that had dominated under Menelik II. This created powerful enemies among the Shewan elite.
  2. His unconventional behavior and failure to follow court protocols alienated many traditional nobles who expected a more conventional ruler.
  3. During World War I, Iyasu seemed to favor Germany and the Ottoman Empire — both enemies of Britain, France, and Italy, the dominant powers in the region. This alarmed the Allied powers, who may have tacitly supported his removal.
  4. Iyasu failed to build a strong political coalition or institutional base of support. His power depended on personal relationships rather than organized political structures.
  
  Conclusion: The official reason for Iyasu’s deposition was “apostasy” (abandoning Christianity), but the real reasons were primarily political — he had alienated the Shewan elite, the Church, and potentially the Allied powers, without building an alternative base of support.
  Practice Question 11: Compare Ethiopia’s victory at Adwa (1896) with its defeat in the Italian invasion of 1935–36. Why did the outcomes differ so dramatically?
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  Answer:
  Why Ethiopia won at Adwa (1896):
  1. Menelik had spent years preparing — stockpiling modern weapons and ammunition.
  2. Ethiopia had national unity — forces from all regions rallied behind Menelik.
  3. Italy was not yet a fully industrialized military power.
  4. Ethiopia had diplomatic support from France and Russia.
  5. Menelik chose the battlefield strategically (at Adwa, on Ethiopian territory).
  6. Italy fought far from its supply bases in Eritrea.
  
  Why Ethiopia lost in 1935–36:
  1. Italy was vastly stronger: By \(1935\), Italy under Mussolini had a modern industrialized military — aircraft, tanks, heavy artillery, and chemical weapons. The qualitative gap between Italian and Ethiopian forces was much larger in \(1935\) than in \(1896\).
  2. Ethiopia was politically weaker: The power struggles of \(1906\)–\(1930\) (Lij Iyasu’s deposition, Zewditu-Tafari tensions) had weakened central authority and national cohesion. Ethiopia was not as united in \(1935\) as it had been in \(1896\).
  3. No external support: In \(1896\), France and Russia had provided weapons and diplomatic support. In \(1935\), despite Ethiopia’s membership in the League of Nations, no country provided meaningful military assistance. The League condemned Italy but took no effective action.
  4. Chemical weapons: Italy used mustard gas against Ethiopian soldiers and civilians, causing massive casualties and terror. This was a new factor that did not exist in \(1896\).
  5. Ethiopian weapons were outdated: Although Ethiopia had some modern weapons, much of its arsenal was still from the \(1890\)s — outdated compared to Italy’s modern equipment.
  
  Key lesson: The dramatic difference shows that a single victory, no matter how glorious, does not guarantee permanent security. Continuous modernization, political unity, and strong international relationships are needed to maintain independence in a changing world.