Control Statements in C++: Complete Chapter 4 Notes for Exam

4.1 Overview of Control Statements

Welcome back, class! Now that you understand the basics of C++ from Chapter 3, we are moving to one of the most important chapters in this course. Control statements are what make your programs smart. Without them, your program would just run from top to bottom, line by line, doing the same thing every time. That is not very useful, is it?

Think about your daily life. You do not follow the exact same steps every single day in a straight line. Sometimes you make decisions — “If it is raining, I will take an umbrella.” Sometimes you repeat actions — “I will keep studying until I understand this topic.” Control statements give your program exactly this kind of decision-making and repetition ability.

In a normal C++ program, statements execute in sequential order — one after another, from top to bottom. Control statements change this order. They let you skip some statements, choose between different paths, or repeat a block of statements multiple times.

Categories of Control Statements

C++ control statements are divided into three main categories:

1. Selection Statements (Decision-making) — These choose which path to follow based on a condition. They include: if, if-else, if-else if, and switch.
2. Repetition Statements (Looping) — These repeat a block of code multiple times. They include: while, do-while, and for.
3. Jump Statements (Flow control) — These transfer control to another part of the program. They include: break, continue, goto, and return.

4.2 Selection Statements

Now let us dive deep into selection statements. These are the decision-makers of your program. They look at a condition and decide which block of code to execute. We will cover four types: if, if-else, if-else if, and switch.

4.2.1 The if Statement

The if statement is the simplest selection statement. It tells the computer: “If this condition is true, then execute this block of code. If the condition is false, just skip it and move on.”

Syntax of the if Statement

if (condition)
{
    // statements to execute when condition is true
}

The condition inside the parentheses must be an expression that evaluates to either true or false. In C++, any non-zero value is treated as true, and 0 is treated as false. The curly braces { } define the block of code that belongs to the if statement.

Worked Example 1: Check if a number is positive

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int num;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> num;

    if (num > 0)
    {
        cout << num << " is a positive number." << endl;
    }

    cout << "Program ended." << endl;
    return 0;
}

Let me trace through this with two different inputs:

• If user enters 7: The condition num > 0 is true. The block inside the if executes. Output: “7 is a positive number.” Then “Program ended.”
• If user enters -3: The condition num > 0 is false. The if block is skipped entirely. Output: Only “Program ended.”

Important: The Single-Statement if (Without Braces)

If the if body has only ONE statement, you can omit the curly braces. But I strongly recommend always using braces — it prevents many bugs.

// Without braces (only ONE statement belongs to if)
if (num > 0)
    cout << "Positive" << endl;

// With braces (always recommended)
if (num > 0)
{
    cout << "Positive" << endl;
}

if (num > 0)
    cout << "Positive" << endl;
    cout << "This always prints" << endl;  // NOT inside the if!

int x;
cin >> x;
if (x)
    cout << "Hello";
cout << " World";

if x > 5
    cout << "Big";

4.2.2 The if-else Statement

The plain if statement only does something when the condition is true. But what if you want to do one thing when the condition is true AND a different thing when it is false? That is where if-else comes in. It gives you two paths — one for true, one for false.

Syntax of the if-else Statement

if (condition)
{
    // block executed when condition is TRUE
}
else
{
    // block executed when condition is FALSE
}

Notice the key difference from plain if: with if-else, one of the two blocks MUST execute. There is no scenario where both are skipped, and there is no scenario where both execute. It is always one OR the other. Keep this in mind for exam questions!

Worked Example 2: Check if a number is even or odd

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int num;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> num;

    if (num % 2 == 0)
    {
        cout << num << " is even." << endl;
    }
    else
    {
        cout << num << " is odd." << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

How does this work? num % 2 gives the remainder when num is divided by 2. If the remainder is 0, the number is divisible by 2, so it is even. If the remainder is not 0 (it will be 1), the number is odd.

Worked Example 3: Find the larger of two numbers

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int a, b;
    cout << "Enter two numbers: ";
    cin >> a >> b;

    if (a > b)
    {
        cout << "The larger number is: " << a << endl;
    }
    else
    {
        cout << "The larger number is: " << b << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

Quick question: What happens if both numbers are equal, say a = 5 and b = 5? The condition a > b is false (5 is not greater than 5), so the else block executes and prints “The larger number is: 5”. The else block handles both “b is larger” AND “they are equal” cases. If you need to treat equality separately, you need if-else if-else (which we will cover next).

if (x > 5);          // <-- this semicolon is a DISASTER
{
    cout << "Big";
}

if (x >= 5)
    cout << "Five or more";
else
    cout << "Less than five";

int a = 10, b = 10;
if (a > b)
    cout << "A";
else
    cout << "B";

4.2.3 The if-else if Statement (Multi-way Decision)

What if you have more than two possible paths? For example, grading a student: if marks >= 90, grade is A; else if marks >= 80, grade is B; else if marks >= 70, grade is C; otherwise, grade is D. For such situations, we use the if-else if chain.

Syntax

if (condition1)
{
    // block 1
}
else if (condition2)
{
    // block 2
}
else if (condition3)
{
    // block 3
}
else
{
    // default block (when none of the above conditions are true)
}

Worked Example 4: Grading program

#include <iiostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int marks;
    cout << "Enter your marks: ";
    cin >> marks;

    if (marks >= 90)
    {
        cout << "Grade: A" << endl;
    }
    else if (marks >= 80)
    {
        cout << "Grade: B" << endl;
    }
    else if (marks >= 70)
    {
        cout << "Grade: C" << endl;
    }
    else if (marks >= 60)
    {
        cout << "Grade: D" << endl;
    }
    else
    {
        cout << "Grade: F" << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

Let me trace this with marks = 85:

• marks >= 90? 85 >= 90? No → skip to next
• marks >= 80? 85 >= 80? Yes → print "Grade: B" → SKIP the entire remaining chain
• The conditions >= 70 and >= 60 are NEVER checked, even though 85 >= 70 is also true.

Now here is a very important exam question: Why does the order of conditions matter? What would happen if we wrote marks >= 60 first, then marks >= 70, then marks >= 80? If marks = 85, the first condition 85 >= 60 would be true, so it would print "Grade: D" and skip everything else — which is WRONG! The conditions must be in descending order (from highest to lowest) for this logic to work correctly.

if (x > 80)
    cout << "Excellent";
else if (x > 70)
    cout << "Good";
else if (x > 60)
    cout << "Average";
else
    cout << "Poor";

if (marks >= 60) cout << "D";
else if (marks >= 70) cout << "C";
else if (marks >= 80) cout << "B";
else if (marks >= 90) cout << "A";

4.2.4 The switch Statement

The switch statement is another way to make multi-way decisions. While if-else if works with any conditions (ranges, comparisons), the switch statement is specifically designed for comparing a variable against specific discrete values (like menu choices, days of the week, letter grades).

Syntax of the switch Statement

switch (expression)
{
    case value1:
        // statements for value1
        break;
    case value2:
        // statements for value2
        break;
    case value3:
        // statements for value3
        break;
    default:
        // statements when no case matches
        break;
}

How switch Works — Step by Step

1. The expression inside switch( ) is evaluated. It must be an integer type or character type (int, char, short, long, enum). It CANNOT be a float, double, or string.
2. The value is compared with each case label from top to bottom.
3. When a match is found, execution starts from that case and continues until a break is encountered or the switch ends.
4. If no case matches, the default block executes (if it exists).

Worked Example 5: Simple calculator using switch

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    char op;
    float num1, num2;

    cout << "Enter operator (+, -, *, /): ";
    cin >> op;
    cout << "Enter two numbers: ";
    cin >> num1 >> num2;

    switch (op)
    {
        case '+':
            cout << "Result: " << num1 + num2 << endl;
            break;
        case '-':
            cout << "Result: " << num1 - num2 << endl;
            break;
        case '*':
            cout << "Result: " << num1 * num2 << endl;
            break;
        case '/':
            if (num2 != 0)
                cout << "Result: " << num1 / num2 << endl;
            else
                cout << "Error: Division by zero!" << endl;
            break;
        default:
            cout << "Error: Invalid operator!" << endl;
            break;
    }

    return 0;
}

int day = 2;
switch (day)
{
    case 1: cout << "Monday" << endl;
    case 2: cout << "Tuesday" << endl;
    case 3: cout << "Wednesday" << endl;
    default: cout << "Other" << endl;
}
// Output: Tuesday
//         Wednesday
//         Other

int x = 1;
switch (x)
{
    case 1: cout << "One ";
    case 2: cout << "Two ";
    case 3: cout << "Three ";
    default: cout << "Default";
}

4.2.5 — 4.2.8 Nested Selection Statements

Nesting means placing one control structure inside another. You can put an if inside another if, a switch inside an if, and so on. This is very common in real programs where decisions depend on previous decisions.

Nested if Statement

if (condition1)
{
    if (condition2)
    {
        // executes when BOTH conditions are true
    }
}

Worked Example 6: Check if a student passes BOTH exams

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int math, english;

    cout << "Enter Math score: ";
    cin >> math;
    cout << "Enter English score: ";
    cin >> english;

    if (math >= 50)
    {
        if (english >= 50)
        {
            cout << "Passed both exams!" << endl;
        }
        else
        {
            cout << "Passed Math but failed English." << endl;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        cout << "Failed Math." << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

Here, the inner if-else is only evaluated when the outer if condition is true (math >= 50). If the student already failed math, there is no need to check english.

Nested if-else Statement

You can also nest complete if-else structures:

if (condition1)
{
    if (condition2)
        // block A
    else
        // block B
}
else
{
    if (condition3)
        // block C
    else
        // block D
}

Worked Example 7: Find the largest of three numbers

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int a, b, c;
    cout << "Enter three numbers: ";
    cin >> a >> b >> c;

    if (a > b)
    {
        if (a > c)
            cout << "Largest: " << a << endl;
        else
            cout << "Largest: " << c << endl;
    }
    else
    {
        if (b > c)
            cout << "Largest: " << b << endl;
        else
            cout << "Largest: " << c << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

The Dangling Else Problem

This is a famous problem in programming. Look at this code:

if (a > 0)
    if (b > 0)
        cout << "Both positive";
else
    cout << "Not both positive";

Which if does the else belong to? The first one or the second one? In C++, the rule is: an else always pairs with the nearest preceding if that does not already have an else. So here, the else belongs to the inner if (b > 0), NOT the outer if (a > 0).

if (a > 0)
{
    if (b > 0)
        cout << "Both positive";
    else
        cout << "a positive, b not";  // else belongs to inner if
}
else
{
    cout << "a not positive";  // else belongs to outer if
}

Nested Switch Statements

You can place a switch inside another switch. This is useful when a decision leads to sub-decisions. For example, a menu system where selecting an option opens a sub-menu.

switch (mainChoice)
{
    case 1:
        // Student management sub-menu
        switch (subChoice)
        {
            case 1: // Add student
                break;
            case 2: // Delete student
                break;
        }
        break;
    case 2:
        // Course management
        break;
}

if (a > b)
{
    if (a > c)
        cout << "A";
    else
        cout << "C";
}
else if (b > c)
    cout << "B";
else
    cout << "C";

4.3 Looping (Repetition) Statements

Now we come to one of the most powerful features of programming — loops. A loop lets you repeat a block of code multiple times without writing it over and over. Imagine you need to print numbers from 1 to 1000. Without loops, you would need 1000 cout statements. With a loop, you need just a few lines.

C++ has three looping statements: while, do-while, and for. All three do the same basic thing — repeat code — but they differ in when they check the condition.

4.3.1 The while Loop

The while loop is the simplest loop. It checks the condition first. If the condition is true, it executes the body. Then it checks the condition again. This repeats until the condition becomes false.

The key phrase to remember is: "while the condition is true, keep looping." And the critical detail: the condition is checked BEFORE each iteration. This means the body might execute zero times if the condition is false from the start.

Syntax

initialization;
while (condition)
{
    // loop body
    update;
}

Worked Example 8: Print numbers 1 to 5

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int i = 1;            // Initialization

    while (i <= 5)        // Condition
    {
        cout << i << " "; // Body
        i++;              // Update
    }

    return 0;
}
// Output: 1 2 3 4 5

Let me trace through this step by step so you can see exactly what happens:

Worked Example 9: Sum of first N natural numbers

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int n, sum = 0, i = 1;

    cout << "Enter a positive integer: ";
    cin >> n;

    while (i <= n)
    {
        sum = sum + i;
        i++;
    }

    cout << "Sum of first " << n << numbers = " << sum << endl;

    return 0;
}

int i = 1;
while (i <= 5)
{
    cout << i << " ";
    // FORGOT i++ !!! --> Infinite loop: prints 1 1 1 1 1 ...
}

int i = 10;
while (i > 15)
{
    cout << i;
    i++;
}

int sum = 0, i = 1;
while (i <= 4)
{
    sum += i;
    i++;
}

4.3.2 The do-while Loop

The do-while loop is very similar to the while loop, with one crucial difference: the condition is checked AFTER the body executes. This means the body always executes at least once, even if the condition is false from the beginning.

Think of it this way: with while, you check first, then act. With do-while, you act first, then check. It is like trying a food before deciding if you want more — you always take the first bite!

Syntax

initialization;
do
{
    // loop body
    update;
} while (condition);    // NOTE the semicolon here!

Worked Example 10: Menu-driven program (classic do-while use case)

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int choice;

    do
    {
        cout << "\n--- MENU ---" << endl;
        cout << "1. Add" << endl;
        cout << "2. Subtract" << endl;
        cout << "3. Exit" << endl;
        cout << "Enter choice: ";
        cin >> choice;

        switch (choice)
        {
            case 1: cout << "Add selected" << endl; break;
            case 2: cout << "Subtract selected" << endl; break;
            case 3: cout << "Goodbye!" << endl; break;
            default: cout << "Invalid choice!" << endl;
        }
    } while (choice != 3);

    return 0;
}

This is the perfect use case for do-while. The menu MUST display at least once so the user can see their options. If we used a while loop, we would need to display the menu before the loop AND inside the loop — redundant code. With do-while, the menu displays once, and the loop continues until the user chooses 3.

int i = 10;
do
{
    cout << i << " ";
    i++;
} while (i < 5);

4.3.3 The for Loop

The for loop is the most commonly used loop in C++. It combines all three loop parts — initialization, condition, and update — into a single line. This makes it compact, readable, and less prone to errors (you are less likely to forget the update since it is right there in the header).

Syntax

for (initialization; condition; update)
{
    // loop body
}

Let me break down the three parts inside the parentheses:

• Initialization — executed ONCE, before the loop starts. Usually sets the loop variable.
• Condition — checked BEFORE each iteration. If false, the loop exits.
• Update — executed AFTER each iteration of the body. Usually changes the loop variable.

Worked Example 11: Print numbers 1 to 5 using for loop

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
    {
        cout << i << " ";
    }
    return 0;
}
// Output: 1 2 3 4 5

Execution trace: i=1 (init) → 1<=5? yes → print 1 → i=2 (update) → 2<=5? yes → print 2 → i=3 → 3<=5? yes → print 3 → i=4 → 4<=5? yes → print 4 → i=5 → 5<=5? yes → print 5 → i=6 → 6<=5? no → exit.

Worked Example 12: Print numbers in reverse (5 to 1)

for (int i = 5; i >= 1; i--)
{
    cout << i << " ";
}
// Output: 5 4 3 2 1

Here, initialization is i = 5, condition is i >= 1, and update is i-- (decrement). The loop counts downward.

Worked Example 13: Sum of first N numbers using for loop

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int n, sum = 0;
    cout << "Enter n: ";
    cin >> n;

    for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++)
    {
        sum += i;
    }

    cout << "Sum = " << sum << endl;
    return 0;
}

Flexible for Loop Syntax

The for loop in C++ is very flexible. You can have multiple initializations and updates separated by commas:

// Multiple initializations and updates
for (int i = 0, j = 10; i < j; i++, j--)
{
    cout << i << " " << j << endl;
}
// Prints: 0 10, 1 9, 2 8, 3 7, 4 6

You can also omit parts (though this is not recommended for beginners):

// Omit initialization (must be done before the loop)
int i = 1;
for (; i <= 5; i++)
    cout << i << " ";

// Infinite for loop (omit condition)
for (int i = 1; ; i++)
{
    if (i > 5) break;  // must break manually
    cout << i << " ";
}

// Omit all parts — classic infinite loop
for (;;)
{
    // runs forever unless break is used
}

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++);   // <-- semicolon here is deadly!
{
    cout << i;
}

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
    if (i == 3)
        continue;
    cout << i << " ";
}

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i = i * 2)
    cout << i << " ";

4.3.4 Nested Loops

Just like nested if statements, you can place one loop inside another. The inner loop completes all its iterations for each single iteration of the outer loop. Nested loops are essential for working with patterns, tables, and multi-dimensional arrays.

Worked Example 14: Print a multiplication pattern

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++)       // outer loop (rows)
    {
        for (int j = 1; j <= 4; j++)   // inner loop (columns)
        {
            cout << j << "\t";
        }
        cout << endl;                 // new line after each row
    }
    return 0;
}

Output:

1   2   3   4
1   2   3   4
1   2   3   4

How this works: The outer loop runs 3 times (i = 1, 2, 3). For EACH value of i, the inner loop runs completely 4 times (j = 1, 2, 3, 4). So the inner body executes $3 \times 4 = 12$ times total.

Worked Example 15: Number triangle pattern

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int n = 5;
    for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++)
    {
        for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++)
        {
            cout << j << " ";
        }
        cout << endl;
    }
    return 0;
}

Output:

1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

Notice that the inner loop condition is j <= i, not j <= n. So for row 1, the inner loop runs 1 time. For row 2, it runs 2 times. For row 5, it runs 5 times. The number of columns matches the row number — that is what creates the triangle shape.

for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++)
    for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++)
        cout << "*";

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++)
{
    for (int j = i; j >= 1; j--)
        cout << j;
    cout << endl;
}

4.4 Other Statements (Jump Statements)

Jump statements transfer control from one point to another in your program. They can be used inside loops and switch statements to alter the normal flow.

4.4.1 The continue Statement

The continue statement skips the remaining statements in the current iteration of a loop and jumps directly to the condition check (for while/do-while) or the update (for for loop). The loop itself does NOT stop — it continues with the next iteration.

// Print all numbers from 1 to 10 except multiples of 3
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
{
    if (i % 3 == 0)
        continue;    // Skip this iteration
    cout << i << " ";
}
// Output: 1 2 4 5 7 8 10

When i = 3, 6, or 9: the continue statement skips the cout and goes to i++. Those numbers are never printed. All other numbers print normally.

4.4.2 The break Statement

The break statement immediately terminates the nearest enclosing loop or switch statement. Control transfers to the statement right after the loop or switch. Unlike continue (which skips one iteration), break stops the entire loop.

// Stop printing when we reach 5
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
{
    if (i == 5)
        break;    // Exit the loop entirely
    cout << i << " ";
}
// Output: 1 2 3 4

When i = 5, the break statement ends the for loop immediately. Numbers 5 through 10 are never reached. The loop runs only 4 times instead of 10.

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++)        // outer loop
{
    for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++)    // inner loop
    {
        if (j == 2)
            break;                  // only breaks inner loop
        cout << j << " ";
    }
    cout << endl;                    // this still executes
}
// Output:
// 1
// 1
// 1

4.4.3 The goto Statement

The goto statement transfers control to a labeled statement anywhere in the same function. It is the most basic (and most controversial) jump statement.

// Example of goto
int i = 1;
start:
cout << i << " ";
i++;
if (i <= 5)
    goto start;
// Output: 1 2 3 4 5

4.4.4 The return Statement

The return statement exits the current function and optionally returns a value to the caller. We have been using return 0; in main() from the beginning. When return is executed inside a function, the function ends immediately — any code after return in the same function is never executed.

int checkPositive(int num)
{
    if (num > 0)
        return 1;       // Function ends here if num > 0
    return 0;           // Only reached if num <= 0
}

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
{
    if (i % 2 == 0)
        continue;
    if (i > 7)
        break;
    cout << i << " ";
}

Chapter Summary — Key Points to Remember

Quick Revision Notes — Exam Focus

Challenge Exam Questions — Test Yourself!

int x = 5, y = 10;
if (x > 0)
    if (y > 15)
        cout << "A";
else
    cout << "B";

int i;
for (i = 1; i <= 5; i++);
cout << i;

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
    for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++)
        if (i == j)
            count++;
cout << count;

int x = 1;
switch (x)
{
    case 1: x += 1;
    case 2: x += 2;
    case 3: x += 3;
    default: x += 4;
}
cout << x;

int i = 0;
while (i < 5)
{
    i++;
    if (i == 3)
        continue;
    cout << i << " ";
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int num, i;

    cout << "Prime numbers between 1 and 50:" << endl;

    for (num = 2; num <= 50; num++)  // outer: test each number
    {
        bool isPrime = true;

        for (i = 2; i < num; i++)   // inner: check divisibility
        {
            if (num % i == 0)
            {
                isPrime = false;
                break;              // not prime, stop checking
            }
        }

        if (isPrime)
            cout << num << " ";
    }

    return 0;
}

int a = 10;
switch (a)
{
    case 10: cout << "Ten";
    case 20: cout << "Twenty"; break;
    case 30: cout << "Thirty";
    default: cout << "Other";
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int n;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> n;

    cout << "\nMultiplication Table of " << n << ":" << endl;

    for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
    {
        cout << n << " x " << i << " = " << n * i << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

5 x 1 = 5
5 x 2 = 10
5 x 3 = 15
5 x 4 = 20
5 x 5 = 25
5 x 6 = 30
5 x 7 = 35
5 x 8 = 40
5 x 9 = 45
5 x 10 = 50

int x = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
{
    for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++)
        x++;
}

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int num;

    do
    {
        cout << "Enter a number (999 to stop): ";
        cin >> num;

        if (num == 999)
        {
            cout << "Program terminated." << endl;
        }
        else if (num > 0)
        {
            cout << num << " is positive." << endl;
        }
        else if (num < 0)
        {
            cout << num << " is negative." << endl;
        }
        else
        {
            cout << "The number is zero." << endl;
        }

    } while (num != 999);

    return 0;
}

int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
    for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
    {
        if (i + j == 3)
            break;
        cout << i << j << " ";
    }
}

for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
{
    for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++)
    {
        if (found) break;  // only breaks inner loop
    }
    if (found) break;      // need another break for outer
}

bool found = false;
for (int i = 0; i < 3 && !found; i++)
{
    for (int j = 0; j < 3 && !found; j++)
    {
        if (condition)
            found = true;  // both loops will check and exit
    }
}

int a = 15, b = 10;
if (a > 10)
    if (b > 15)
        cout << "X";
    else
        cout << "Y";
else
    if (a > 5)
        cout << "Z";
    else
        cout << "W";

*
**
***
****
*****

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int rows = 5;

    for (int i = 1; i <= rows; i++)
    {
        for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++)
        {
            cout << "*";
        }
        cout << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

int x = 100;
while (x > 50)
{
    x -= 10;
    if (x == 60)
        break;
    cout << x << " ";
}
cout << x;

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    int n;
    long long factorial = 1;

    cout << "Enter a non-negative integer: ";
    cin >> n;

    if (n < 0)
    {
        cout << "Error: Factorial is not defined for negative numbers." << endl;
    }
    else
    {
        int i = 1;
        while (i <= n)
        {
            factorial = factorial * i;
            i++;
        }
        cout << "Factorial of " << n << " = " << factorial << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}